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Erythroxylum is a genus of plants comprising more than 200 species. Among them, Erythroxylum coca and Erythroxylum novogranatense, are the main commercial sources of cocaine and we commonly refer to them as coca plants. These plants have an enormous socio-economic impact, both to legally compliant industries, such as soft drink manufacturers, and the illicit international drug trafficking market.
This kind of plant has often been at the center of many debates regarding its very strong historical connection to the social fabric of South America. This strong bond supports every attempt to study this plant without prejudice, with the aim of being able to get the best out of this multifaceted plant.
Although technology allows us to chemically synthesize more quickly and efficiently many of the naturally occurring compounds, botanical extraction often remains the only option to obtain certain molecules. This is why we need a deeper and more prejudice-free understanding. The phytochemicals contained in coca plants have a wide range of applications going from nutritional, agricultural, cosmetic and medicinal uses.
History of Coca Plant
The coca plant has played a fundamental role in the history and culture of the indigenous populations of the Andes for millennia. Mainly growing in the tropical and subtropical areas of South America, coca plants have been used and revered by ancient civilizations not only for its stimulating effects, but also for its medicinal properties. Its use changed significantly with the arrival of European colonizers and was further changed when a German chemist extracted the active ingredient from the plant in the 19th century. [1]
The coca plant is among the oldest medicinal plant species in the world, some traces found in South America indicate its use for at least 8000 years. These small shrubs grow in all regions of South America and develop in the mountains, often between 500 and 1500 meters, some even reach 2000 meters above sea level.
The word “coca” derives from the term “kuka”, a name that in the Quechua language means “coca plant”. According to other sources, however, the word derives from an Indian population prior to the Incas, called Aymara. The members of this population were perfectly capable of cultivating and using the plant. In their language, the term coca simply means “plant” or “tree”.
Coca was one of the most powerful and ancient natural stimulants. Already three thousand years BC, the Incas of the Andes chewed the leaves of this plant to accelerate heartbeats and breathing in order to counteract the effects of a life spent in the rarefied high mountain air. The use of this plant has very ancient origins, traces of chewed leaves have been found in some funerary objects found in Huaca Prieta, on the coast of Peru, before 2500 BC, in the skulls of Peruvian tombs, and in the hair of Chilean mummies.
Coca has a very important social, cultural, and even medicinal meaning in traditional South American cultures. By adult men, it was used disproportionately, to better tolerate work activities but also to “facilitate” social ones, strengthening community bonds. This plant was at the center of religious ceremonies such as weddings or funerals, where taking and sharing coca leaves were the core ritualistic activities.
Coca also had metaphysical significance, as it was used as an offering to nature in divinatory practices and as part of rituals that were believed to help maintain balance between the human and natural worlds. In traditional medicine, coca was used as a remedy for many conditions, such as digestive disorders, oral pain, hunger, altitude sickness, and bone and muscle pain, but it also served to alleviate conditions more related to the psyche, such as depression or sexual impotence. [2]
According to legend, this seemingly miraculous plant was a gift from the gods, Manco Capac, the divinity son of the Sun, descended at the dawn of time from the heights of Lake Titicaca, bringing the knowledge of the gods, teaching the arts, and finally giving the coca leaf, a divine plant that satisfies the hungry and give strength to the weak. In fact, coca leaves were widely consumed in all social contexts, and even after death they were used in rituals by placing leaves in the mouth of the deceased, thus ensuring their welcome in the afterlife.
Coca During the Colonial Era
Originally, coca leaves were used by aristocrats as an initiation rite, which was used to be officially accepted by high society and to officially become part of the Inca religion. The leaves were not widespread and also represented the distance between the people and the nobles, who, thanks to the use of this plant, justified their divine descent. At the time of Spanish conquest, however, this plant was already spread equally throughout all South American populations.
The Conquistadors did not appreciate this plant and its use and it was considered of demonic origin, “pagan and sinful” given the effects on the psyche. It was thus banished by the Spanish invaders. This attitude changed suddenly, however, when they noticed that the Indians could no longer carry out the heavy work imposed in the mines if they were prohibited from ingesting coca. They even went as far as distributing coca leaves to workers three or four times a day and giving them breaks to allow them to chew this substance. It was already clear how this plant allowed the Indians to endure exceptional fatigue and carry out heavy work without needing adequate nourishment.
Coca thus became an integral part of the colonial economy, as its use increased productivity in the mines. Subsequently the value of this plant began to extend beyond the Andes. [3]
History of Coca in Europe
Coca began to spread in Europe in the 19th century. In 1859, Paolo Mantegazza, an Italian physiologist, neurologist, and anthropologist who had spent some years in the South American regions, published in “Sulle virtù igieniche e medicinali della coca” his observations relating to the physiological and therapeutic effects of the plant.
Also in 1859, Dr. Schuzer, member of the Austrian expedition “Novara“, brought a batch of coca leaves to Vienna and sent some to Professor Wholer, and it is precisely from those leaves that Wholer’s student, Niemann, first isolated the main alkaloid of the plant: cocaine. Cocaine immediately aroused great interest among the entire European scientific community, which at the time considered it a sort of panacea for numerous disorders
such as depression, fatigue, or addiction to other substances, like morphine.
Sigmund Freud was one of the first promoters of the substance, publishing an essay entitled “Uber Coca” in 1884, in which he praised its psychoactive properties. At the same time, coca found use in various commercial products. One of the best-known examples is the 1863 drink “Vin Mariani” , a blend of wine and coca leaves, popular among Europe’s elite and praised for its tonic and stimulating properties. Thus coca and cocaine spread very quickly in Europe, with invigorating drinks and antidepressant drugs.
In America, after the European success of Vin Mariani, entrepreneurs considered it advantageous to invest in the cocaine-based products market. Thus it was that John Pemberton, an American pharmacist, launched Frech Wine Coca, and during prohibitionism the now very famous non- alcoholic drink: Coca-Cola, in 1886, at the time made with small amount of cocaine extracted from coca leaves, enriched with caffeine derived from kola nuts of Cola acuminata, all dissolved in a sweet syrup of sugar. [3]
Coca and Cocaine in the Modern Era
The traditional use of coca leaves by South American populations and the apparently beneficial effects of this plant very quickly aroused the interest of the entire European and non-European scientific community during the 19th and 20th centuries. This interest led in 1860 to the isolation of the main alkaloid of this plant, cocaine, and its derivatives.Consequently, the first anesthetics officially identified by science emerged, marking a significant advancement that contributed to the development of modern surgery.
Despite that, at the beginning of the 20th century, the scientific community began to realize the possible danger that this plant could represent. Its toxicity and potential for addiction have sharply curbed research and development into its beneficial applications. To date, the illegal market and social stigma, together with the lack of awareness of the enormous potential of this plant, have significantly hindered research on coca plants and its components other than cocaine. Nevertheless research on Erythroxylum species have shown that there are many possibilities to develop positive and productive applications for coca. [3]
Coca in Modern Medicine
There are not many studies on the true potential of the coca plant in contemporary medicine. The available literature comes from the reports of traditional medicine and from the very few studies that have managed to overcome the legal constraints and social stigma surrounding this plant. Among the topics that arouse research interest for modern medicine is the value of coca as a stimulant and its effect on physical performance (the use that comes closest to the traditional one).
In fact Coca is supposed to increase the availability of glucose in the body, especially during physical activities. This effect is thought to result from coca’s influence on fatty acid metabolism, which can lead to appetite suppression. It is also hypothesized that the use of coca, being a vasoconstrictor, promotes improved blood flow and a reduction in heat loss. While there is no confirmatory research, there are many documented reports supporting cocaine’s impact on sexual performance. [4]
Among the beneficial effects of coca plants and their constituents including alkaloids, flavonoids, vitamins and minerals, there are:
- Stimulation of energy and mood
- Appetite suppression
- Enhanced physical endurance
- Pain relief
- Altitude sickness relief
- Improved blood flow
- Antioxidant effects
- Nutritional benefits
Coca Treatments for Mental Health
Some research indicates that coca may provide adequate tools for treating many mental health conditions. Coca can act as a fast-acting antidepressant due to the effects of its alkaloids on mood receptors. Even with regard to attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, coca could provide benefits similar to those provided by current treatments.
Containing many stimulants from the tropane family, coca and its alkaloids could produce results similar to those obtained with amphetamines and methylphenidate, currently used in the treatment of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). It is also conceivable that coca may provide a valid solution for treating other addictions. [5]
The Scourge of Drug Trafficking
The production, trafficking, and consumption of drugs have reached great proportions throughout the world. In Colombia, the problem has acquired very huge connotations, as this country represents one of the main producers of narcotics, not only in Latin America but throughout the world. Specifically, the Colombian state holds the record in the cultivation and processing of the coca leaf and consequently in the production of cocaine.
The origin of cocaine has very deep roots, since ancient times, the indigenous Colombian populations have cultivated the coca leaf as it has within it a substance considered sacred, to the point of being an object of worship in their culture. In addition to this, it should be added that Colombia has territorial conformities that favor the cultivation and processing of the coca plant, presenting plains, forests, and plateaus located in the most marginal areas of Colombian territory where the vast complexes of coca processing laboratories and coca-growing areas turn out to be more difficult to trace by government agencies. The illegality of the drug industry imprints a peculiar character in that organized crime, violence, and corruption are its natural components.
The drug trade penetrates the structures of civil society and also intervenes politically by trying to take control of part of the national territories, using force through paramilitary groups that destabilize the state and triggering power struggles within the criminal groups themselves for control of those strategic positions capable of guaranteeing maximum profits.
They seek to impose their own laws and values, violating human rights and endangering the permanence and stability of Colombia’s democratic system. To conclude, an analysis of drug trafficking is elaborated in this thesis from a global perspective, outlining what are the main routes of drugs leaving the Colombian state to land in Europe, Africa, and the United States, the main recipients of Colombian drugs.
Finally, we outline what international strategies and projects are aimed at reducing and limiting drug trafficking. These agreements are made by international organizations deeply concerned about the extent and growth of illicit drug production, demand, and trafficking that pose a serious threat to the health and well-being of individuals and have harmful effects on the economic, cultural, and political foundations of society. [5]
References:
[1] Niemann, A. (1860). Über eine neue organische Base in den Cocablättern. Göttingen: Göttinger Dissertationsdrucke.
[2 ] MDPI and ACS Style Restrepo, D.A.; Saenz, E.; Jara-Muñoz, O.A.; Calixto-Botía, I.F.; Rodríguez-Suárez, S.; Zuleta, P.; Chavez, B.G.; Sanchez, J.A.; D’Auria, J.C. Erythroxylum in Focus: An Interdisciplinary Review of an Overlooked Genus. Molecules 2019, 24, 3788
[3] Freud, Sigmund. “Uber coca.” Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment (1984).
[4] Weil, Andrew T. “The therapeutic value of coca in contemporary medicine.” Journal of Ethnopharmacology 3.2-3 (1981): 367-376.
[5] Agugiaro, Beatrice. “Il Narcotraffico: il caso della Colombia e il suo impatto internazionale.”
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